Benutzer:Merkið/Schottische Reformation

Statue von John Knox, Führer der Schottischen Reformation

Die Schottische Reformation (engl. Scottish Reformation) bezeichnet den formalen Bruch Schottlands mit dem Papsttum im Jahre 1560 und die damit verbundenen Ereignisse. Schottland war Teil der breiten europäischen Reformation; und in Schottlands Fall gipfelte es kirchenrechtlich in der Wiedererrichtung der Kirche entlang der reformierten Linien, und politisch in dem Triumph des englischen Einflusses auf das Königreich Frankreich.

Das Reformationsparlament von 1560, dass die päpstliche Autorität nicht anerkannte, das Feiern der Messe verbot und ein Glaubensbekenntnis genehmigte, wurde möglich gemacht durch eine Revolution gegen die französische Hegemonie. Zuvor war Schottland unter Regentschaft Marie de Guise', die im Namen ihrer abwesenden Tochter Maria Stuarts (so auch Königin Frankreichs).

Die Schottische Reformation gestaltete die Church of Scotland wesentlich und dadurch alle presbyterianischen Kirchen weltweit.

Vor der Reformation in Schottland

Der Druck zur Reform

Seit dem fünfzehnten Jahrhundert hatte der Humanismus der Renaissance bereits kritische theologische Reflektion und Rufe nach kirchlicher Erneuerung in Schottland. Martin Luthers Doktrin beeinflusste Schottland. Bereits 1525 bemerkte das schottische Parlament es sei nötig, den Import lutheranischer Bücher zu verbieten und unterdrückte „his heresies or opinions“ (Luthers Häresien oder Anischten) im ganzen Reich. Jedoch war dieser Versuch größtenteils erfolglos.

Das Martyrs' Monument bei Saint Andrews, erinnert daran, dass Protestanten, wie auch Hamilton und Wishart vor der Reformation hingerichtet.

1528 wurde Edelmann Patrick Hamilton, beeinflusst von Luthers Thesen während seines Studiums an den Universitäten Wittenbergs und Marburgs, der erste protestantische Märtyrer, als er für Häresie außerhalb des St Salvator's College bei Saint Andrews verbrannt wurde. (Hamilton hatte seine Botschaft mit der Verwendung der Patrick's Places, einem kurzen Katechismus begründet auf der Doktirn des sola fide). Jedoch diente die Verherrlichung der Thesen Hamiltons, teilwiese in gedruckter Form, nur zur Verstärkung des Interesses an den neuen Ideen. Tatsächlich wurde der Erzbischof von St Andrews vor jeglichen öffentlichen Exekutionen gewarnt („the reek of Maister Patrik Hammyltoun has infected as many as it blew upon“). Weitere Strafverfolgungen und Hinrichtungen folgten in den 30er und 40er Jahren des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts.

1541 befand das Parlament es sei nötig weitere Gesetze zum Schutze der Heiligen Messe, dem Gebt zur Muttergottes, Bildern von Heiligen und der Autorität des Papstes zu verabschiedene. Private Treffen von „heretics where there errors are spread“ (Häresie die Irrtümer verbreitet) wurden verboten, Verräter wurden belohnt, were prohibited, informers rewarded, und protestantische Sympathisanten wurden von der königlichen Kanzlei begnadigt. All dies war Zeugnis der wachsenden Attraktivität der protestantischen Ideen.

Die Väter der Reform erfreuten sich einflussreicher Unterstützung. Zu dieser Zeit produzierte der Klerus eine Liste von Landeignern, die sich von der Kirche entfremdet hatten für den König. Die Stärke von Sympathisanten der Reformation war so groß, dass sie zum Zeitpunkt des Todes Jakob V. 1542, in der Lage waren, unter dem unschlüssigen Earl of Arran der zu jener Zeit eine englische Allianz und Reformation unterstützte, eine eigene Regierung zu stellen.

Reformatorische Konzile

Die vor-reformatorische Kirche reagierte auf einen Teil der Kritik, die gegen sie aufgebracht wurde. John Hamilton (der letzte vor-reformatorische Erzbischof von St Andrews) berief eine Serie von provinziellen Konzilen (1549–1459), basierend auf dem gleichzeitig stattfindenden Konzil von Trent ein. Jenes beschuldigte den Vormarsch der protestantischen Häresie „the corruption of morals and the profane lewdness of life in churchmen of all ranks, together with crass ignorance of literature and of the liberal arts“ (der Korruption der Moral und profaner Unzucht im Leben aller Kirchenmänner jedes Ranges,zusammen mit krasser Ignoranz der Literatur und der freien Künste). 1548 wurden Versuche unternommen, das Konkubinat, klerikalen Pluralismus, klerikalen Handel, und Abwesenheit zu eliminieren sowie unqualifizierte Personen von Kirchenämtern fernzuhalten. Des weiteren Further, the clergy were enjoined to scriptural reflection and bishops and parsons instructed to preach at least four times a year. Monks were to be sent to university, and theologians appointed for each monastery, college and cathedral. However, in 1552, it was acknowledged that little had been accomplished. Attendance at Mass was still sparse and "the inferior clergy of this realm and the prelates have not, for the most part, attained such proficiency in the knowledge of the Holy Scriptures as to be able by their own efforts rightly to instruct the people in the catholic faith and other things necessary to salvation or to convert the erring". The internal reform seemed too little, too late.

Politischer Hintergrund (1543–59)

Cardinal Beaton, defender of the old faith, and leader of the pro-French faction.

By 1535, the English king, Henry VIII, had broken with Rome and had been excommunicated. He had also permitted the reading of the Bible in the native tongue. These 'English heresies' were an additional influence on events in Scotland. Ecclesiastical ideas were linked to political manoeuvring. English policy from the 1530s aimed at enticing Scotland away from its traditional ties to France (the 'Auld alliance') and Rome. In the 1540s Henry sought a treaty for the marriage of his infant son Edward to the infant Mary (by then Queen of Scots): the regent, Arran, approved this match in August 1543 (by the Treaties of Greenwich). However, reaction against it in Scotland allowed a coup by Cardinal David Beaton that December. Beaton repudiated the reforming policies, and all consideration of an English marriage for the Queen. The result was Henry's 'Rough Wooing' of 1544–5, which devastated south-east Scotland, and was only halted by the defeat of the invaders at Ancrum Moor in February 1545.

In 1546, Beaton had arrested and executed George Wishart, a preacher who came under the influence of John Calvin in Geneva — and had indeed translated the First Helvetic Confession into Scots. Retribution quickly followed. A group of rebels seized Beaton's castle at Saint Andrews, and murdered him. These 'Castelians' (who, after the murder, were joined by a renegade priest, and student of Wishart's, named John Knox) held out in the castle until 1547, when they were forced to surrender to a French squadron and were imprisoned or taken as galley slaves. English forces arrived too late to save them, but nevertheless, having defeated the Scots at Pinkie, occupied south-east Scotland with forts at Lauder, Haddington and an outpost at Dundee. This occupation (1547–49) encouraged the reforming cause; English Bibles circulated freely, and several earls pledged themselves 'to cause the word of God to be taught and preached'.

To counter the English, the Scots secured French help, the price of which was the betrothal of the infant Queen to the French dauphin, the future Francis II; she departed to France in 1548. At this point, "the policy of Henry VIII had failed completely". French ascendancy was made absolute over the next decade. Arran, in 1554, was given the title Duke du Châtellerault and removed from the regency in favour of Mary of Guise (the Queen Mother). During her regency (1554–59), Frenchmen were put in charge of the treasury, the Great Seal, and the French ambassador sometimes attended the Privy Council.

Herren der Kongregation

Zuerst erhöhte Marie de Guise die Anzahl der Prediger der wachsenden protestantischen Gemeinde. Da die Protestanten keinerlei Unterstützung von dem mittlerweile von Maria Tudorregiertem England erwarten konnten, gaben sie Marie die benötigte Unterstützung für ihre pro-französische Politik. Jedoch verstärkte die Vermählung Maria Stuarts mit dem Dauphin im Jahre 1558 die Furcht, Schottland würde französische Provinz werden.

Seit 1557 erarbeitete eine Gruppe schottischer Lords (bekannt als „the Lords of the Congregation“) einen Geheimbund, mit dem Credo „maintain, set forth, and establish the most blessed Word of God and his Congregation.“, begleitet wurde das Ganze 1558 - 1559 von ikonoklastischen Ausschreitungen. Zur selben Zeit wurden Pläne zur Reformierung des Gemeindekults erarbeitet, als lokale Gemeinden nach protestantischen Pfarrern suchten. 1558 berief die Regentin protestantische Geistliche, um ihre Lehre zu verteidigen, gab allerdings nach, als Lairds der westlichen Ländereien eine Revolte androhten.

Reformatorische Krise (1559–60)

The accession, in England, of the Protestant Queen Elizabeth in 1558 gave fresh hope to the reformers. January 1559 saw the publication of the anonymous Beggars' Summons, which threatened friars with eviction on the grounds that their property belonged to the genuine poor. This was calculated to appeal to the passions of the populace of towns who appeared to have particular complaints against friars. Fearing disorder, the Regent summoned the reformed preachers to appear before her at Stirling on 10 May: insurrection followed. The men of Angus assembled in Dundee to accompany the preachers to Stirling, on 4 May they were joined by Knox recently arrived from France. Here, stirred by Knox's sermons in Perth and Dundee, the mob sacked religious houses (including the tomb of James I) at Perth. In response, the Regent marched on Perth, but was forced to withdraw and negotiate when another reformed contingent arrived from the west.

Among the Regent's ambassadors were the Earl of Argyll and Lord James Stewart, both professed Protestants. When the Regent stationed French mercenaries in Perth, both abandoned her and joined the Lords of the Congregation at St Andrews, where they were joined by John Knox. Even Edinburgh soon fell to them in July, as Mary retreated to Dunbar. A truce was made at Leith Links on 24 July 1559, and the Congregation agreed by the Articles of Leith to vacate Holyroodhouse and hand over the coining irons seized from the mint. On 26 July the Lords left Edinburgh for Linlithgow and Stirling. In September, Chatelherault, with the safe return of his son, the Earl of Arran, accepted the leadership of the Lords of the Congregation and established a provisional government. However, Mary of Guise was reinforced by professional French troops, and in November drove the rebels back to Stirling. Fighting continued in Fife. All seemed lost for the Protestant side until an English fleet arrived in the Firth of Forth, in January 1560, causing the French to retreat to Leith.

The 'blast' rendered Knox unacceptable to Elizabeth, although it had been aimed at her predecessor Maria

Negotiations then began (from which Knox was excluded, his earlier tract The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women rendering him unacceptable to Elizabeth I). The resulting Treaty of Berwick (February) was an agreement between Chatelherault and the English to act jointly to expel the French. However, in June 1560, Mary of Guise died, allowing the Treaty of Edinburgh: a negotiation between France and England, which secured the withdrawal of both French and English troops from Scotland. Although the French commissioners were unwilling to treat with the insurgent Lords of the Congregation, they offered the Scots certain concessions from King Francis and Queen Mary, including the right to summon a parliament according to use and custom. The effect of the treaty was to leave power in the hands of the Protestants.

Das reformatorische Parlament

The Scottish Parliament met in Edinburgh on 10 July 1560. Fourteen earls, six bishops, nineteen lords, twenty one abbots, twenty-two burgh commissioners, and over a hundred lairds claimed right to sit. Parliament then set up a 'committee of the articles' which, after three weeks, recommended a condemnation of transubstantiation, justification by works, indulgences, purgatory, and papal authority. Furthermore it recommended restoring the perceived discipline of the early Church and redistributing the wealth of the Church to the ministry, schools and the poor. On 17 August, Parliament approved a Reformed Confession of Faith (the Scots Confession), and on 24 August it passed three Acts that abolished the old faith in Scotland. Under these, all previous acts not in conformity with the Reformed Confession were annulled; the sacraments were reduced to two (Baptism and Communion) to be performed by reformed preachers alone; the celebration of the Mass was made punishable by a series of penalties (ultimately death) and Papal jurisdiction in Scotland was repudiated.

However, aside from approving the Confession, parliament showed little interest in plans for the reformation of the church. Significantly, although the traditional functions of the Catholic clergy had been terminated, the clerical estate remained legally intact and, more importantly, in possession of the revenues of the pre-Reformation Church. What shape the new church was to take was left open, and indeed was not finally settled until 1689. Moreover, and perhaps unsurprisingly, the Queen declined to endorse even the acts that Parliament had passed, which were not officially ratified until the first parliament of James VI in 1567. Nevertheless, from this point on, Scotland was, in effect, a Protestant state.

Postreformatorische Kirche

Konfession

Entgegen den frühen lutheranischen Reformatoren, waren Knox und der Großteil seiner Umgebung vertraut mit der Praxis des Calvinismus. So war Knox während seines Exils nach Genf, wo Calvin lebte, und beschrieb es als „the most perfect school of Christ that ever was on earth since the days of the Apostles.“)

The Scots Confession reflects that Calvinist influence, although without the systematic and scholastic nature of the more strident Westminster Confession that would replace it in 1644. The Scots Confession expounds the themes of the Catholic creeds, but also includes a rejection of any meritorious virtue: all good works are brought forth by the spirit. It also rejects all religious works that have no Scriptural warrant, including the rites of the Roman church. As for the church, it derived its authority from the word of God and was to be defined by "true preaching of the word of God... secondly, the right administration of the sacraments of Christ Jesus... last, ecclesiastical discipline uprightly ministered".

Liturgie

Parliamentary hostility meant there was no question of any Act of Uniformity as in England. Thus, the shape the Church initially took was dependent on local Protestant patrons. However, even before 1560, reformed congregations had already been organising themselves under the influence of Knox. In a 'Letter of Wholesome Councell' dated 1556, Knox described in detail what should be done at weekly worship. Protestant preachers fleeing Marian persecutions in England brought with them Edward VI's second Book of Common Prayer (of 1552), which was commended by the Lords of the Congregation. Knox too initially supported it (indeed reportedly, he had influenced aspects of it). However, before leaving Geneva, and with the encouragement of Calvin, he had written his own 'Book of Common Order' and it was this that was printed and approved by the General Assembly of 1562. Enlarged, it was reprinted with the Confession and the Psalms in metre in 1564, and it remained the standard until replaced with the Westminster Directory in 1643.

Kirchenpolitik

Wie die Kirche ideal aufgebaut sein sollte, wurde im First Book of Discipline von 1560, einem Dokument, dass der Kirche wie dem nationalen Leben in Übereinstimmung mit der Bibel gewidmet war, detailliert beschrieben. It envisaged the establishment of reformed ministers throughout Scotland, a national system of education and poor-relief. Ministers were to be examined for their suitability and then elected by the local congregation. In the interim, whilst candidates were scarce, 'readers' were to be appointed. Also, there were to be 'superintendents', better paid than ministers, with regional responsibilities corresponding to the old dioceses. (It has often been suggested from this that Knox favoured episcopacy – however, it is to be remembered that Apostolic succession was explicitly denied.) Education was to be established at primary, secondary and university levels; it was to be examined and inspected.

In truth, the lofty aims often went unrealised, or at least only very slowly. An Act of 1562 denied the new Church much of the wealth of the old, with the church receiving a sixth of the income that it had received pre-Reformation with most of the balance going to the nobility. As late as 1567, there were only 257 ministers and 600 readers for 1,067 churches. The marks of what is now recognisable as Presbyterianism also started to emerge: Kirk Sessions existed from 1560, moderators emerged in 1563, but the presbytery not until 1580. The seeds were planted for the modern shape of the Church of Scotland.

(weiterführende) Literatur

• Bain, Joseph, Hg., Calendar of the State Papers relating to Scotland and Mary Queen of Scots 1547–1603, vol. 1, H.M. General Register House Edinburgh, vol. 1, (1898)
• Burleigh, J. H. D A Church History of Scotland Hope Trust, Edinburgh, 1988.
• Cross, F.L. and Livingstone, E.A. (eds), Scotland in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, ff. 1471–73. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1997. ISBN 0-19-211655-X.
• Kirk, J, Patterns of Reform T&T Clark, Edinburgh, 1989 ISBN 0-567-09505-3.
• Kirk, J.,Reformation, Scottish in Cameron, Nigel M. de S. et al., Dictionary of Scottish Church History and Theology, pp. 693–98. T & T Clark, Edinburgh 1993. ISBN 0-567-09650-5.
• Lamont, Stewart The Swordbearer: John Knox and the European Reformation Hodder and Stoughton, London 1991
• Lynch, Michael, Reformation in The Oxford Companion to Scottish History, pp. 500–4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001. ISBN 0-19-211696-7.
• Mackie, J. D., A History of Scotland Penguin, London 1964.
• McGovern, Mary (ed), Chambers Biographical Dictionary Seventh Edition. Chambers, Edinburgh, 2002. ISBN 0-550-10051-2.
• Todd, Margo, The Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern Scotland. Yale University Press, 2002.

== Weblinks ==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/renaissance/features_renaissance_reformation.shtml BBC Scottish History]

[[Kategorie:Church of Scotland]]
[[Kategorie:Christentum in Schottland]]
[[Kategorie:Reformation]]
[[Kategorie:Presbyterianismus]]
[[Kategorie:Reformiertentum]]
[[Kategorie:Geschichte der römisch-katholischen Kirche]]
[[Kategorie:Geschichte des Protestantismus]]
[[Kategorie:Protestantismus im Vereinigten Königreich]]
[[Kategorie:Christentum (16. Jahrhundert)]]