Benutzer:Theater88/Byzantinischer Kalender

Byzantinisches Mosaik der Erschaffung des Adam, (Monreale ).

Der Byzantinischer Kalender (Altgriechisch: Ἔτη Γενέσεως Κόσμου κατὰ Ῥωμαίους, also Ἔτος Κτίσεως Κόσμου oder Ἔτος Κόσμου, abgekürzt als ε.Κ.) war ein Kalender. Er wurde von etwa 691 bis 1728 im Ökumenisches Patriarchat von Konstantinopel verwendet, von 988 bis 1453 im byzantinischer Kaiserreich und von etwa 988 bis 1700 im Kiewer Rus und Russland. Der Name Byzantinisch wird rückblickend verwendet. Im Byzantinischen Reich wurde wie für das Reich selbst das Adjektiv römisch verwendet.

Der Kalender basiert auf dem Julianischen Kalender. Im Gegensatz zu diesem beginnt das Jahr am 1. Spetember und basiert auf dem Annus Mundi nach der Septuagintaübersetzung der Bibel. Er legte als Jahr der Menschwerdung Gottes das Jahr 5509 nach der Schöpung fest. Der Kalender beginnt somit am 1. September 5509 vor Christus. Somit wäre das Jahr 2019 nach dem Gregorianischen Kalender das Jahr 7528.

Geschichte

Es ist nicht bekannt wann und wer den Kalender einführte. Er wurde zuerst in einer Abhandlung des Mönches und Priesters Georgios erwähnt. Georgios argues that the main advantage of the World era is the common starting point of the astronomical lunar and solar cycles, and of the cycle of indictions, the usual dating system in Byzantium since the 6th century. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the Easter computus. Complex calculations of the 19-year lunar and 28-year solar cycles within this world era allowed scholars to discover the cosmic significance of certain historical dates, such as the birth or the crucifixion of Jesus.

This date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the mid-7th century, although its precursors were developed c. AD 412 (see <i id="mwPQ">Alexandrian Era</i>). By the second half of the 7th century, the Creation Era was known in Westeuropa, at least in Great Britain.[note 3] By the late 10th century around AD 988, when the era appears in use on official government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world.

The era was ultimately calculated as starting on September 1, and Jesus Christus was thought to have been born in the year 5509 since the creation of the world. Historical time was thus calculated from the creation, and not from Christ's birth, as in the west after the Anno Domini system was adopted between 6th and 9th centuries. The western Church avoided the use of the Anno Domini system of Dionysius Exiguus, since the date of Christ's birth was debated in Constantinople as late as the 14th century. Otherwise the byzantinischer Kalender was identical to the Julianischer Kalender except that:

• the names of the months were transcribed from Latin into Greek;
• the first day of the year was September 1,[note 4] so that both the Ecclesiastical and Civil Kalender years ran from 1 September to 31 August, (see Indiktion), which to the present day is the Eastern Orthodox church year;
• dates were seldom, if ever, reckoned according to the kalends (Vorlage:Linktext, kalandaí), Römischer Kalender (Vorlage:Linktext, nōnaí), and Römischer Kalender (Vorlage:Linktext, eidoí) of the months in the Roman manner but simply numbered from the beginning of the month in the Attischer Kalender, Syrian, and Ägyptischer Kalender,[note 5][note 6] and,
• its era was based on the year of creation, reckoned September 1, 5509 BC, to August 31, 5508 BC, rather than the Ab urbe condita (Chronologie); years were also reckoned by their place in the Indiktion and not by the years' consuls.

The Schalttag of the byzantinischer Kalender was obtained in an identical manner to the Schaltjahr of the original Roman version of the Julian Kalender, by doubling the sixth day before the Kalenden of March, i.e., by doubling 24 February.

The byzantinischer World Era was gradually replaced in the Orthodoxe Kirchen by the Anno Domini, which was utilized initially by Patriarch Theophanes I Karykes in 1597, afterwards by Patriarch Kyrillos Loukaris in 1626, and then formally established by the Church in 1728. Meanwhile, as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Kalender based on the byzantinischer Era (translated into Slavonic). After the collapse of the Byzantinisches Reich in 1453, the era continued to be used by Russia, which witnessed millennialist movements in Moscow in AD 1492 (7000 AM). It was only in AD 1700 that the byzantinischer World Era in Russia was changed to the Julianischer Kalender by Peter der Große. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox Kalenders up to today. September AD 2000 began the year 7509 AM.[note 7]

Earliest Christian sources on the age of the world

The earliest extant Christian writings on the age of the world according to the Biblical chronology are by Theophilus (Antiochia) (AD 115–181), the sixth bishop of Antioch from the Apostles, in his apologetic work To Autolycus, and by Sextus Iulius Africanus (AD 200–245) in his Five Books of Chronology. Both of these early Christian writers, following the Septuaginta version of the Altes Testament, determined the age of the world to have been about 5,530 years at the birth of Christ.

Ben Zion Wacholder points out that the writings of the Kirchenvater on this subject are of vital significance (even though he disagrees with their chronological system based on the authenticity of the Septuaginta, as compared to that of the Masoretischer Text), in that through the Christian chronographers a window to the earlier Hellenistic biblical chronographers[note 8] is preserved:

An immense intellectual effort was expended during the Hellenistic period by both Jews and Heidentum to date Schöpfungsgeschichte (Priesterschrift), Sintflut, Auszug aus Ägypten, building of the Temple... In the course of their studies, men such as Tatian (flourished in 180), Clemens von Alexandria (died before 215), Hippolyt von Rom (died in 235), Sextus Iulius Africanus of Jerusalem (died after 240), Eusebius von Caesarea in Palestine (260–340), and Pseudo-Justin frequently quoted their predecessors, the Graeco-Jewish biblical chronographers of the Hellenistic period, thereby allowing discernment of more distant scholarship.

The Hellenismus Jewish writer Demetrius the Chronographer (flourishing 221–204 BC) wrote On the Kings of Judea which dealt with biblical exegesis, mainly chronology; he computed the date of Sintflut and the birth of Abraham exactly as in the Septuaginta, and first established the Annus Adami – Era of Adam, the antecedent of the Jüdischer Kalender, and of the Alexandrian and byzantinischer Creation Eras.

Alexandrian Era

The Alexandrian Era (Greek: Κόσμου ἔτη κατ’ Ἀλεξανδρεῖς, Kósmou étē kat'Alexandreîs) developed in AD 412, was the precursor to the byzantinischer Era. After the initial attempts by Hippolyt von Rom, Clemens von Alexandria and others[note 9], the Alexandrian computation of the date of creation was worked out to be 25 March 5493 BC.

The Alexandrine monk Panodorus von Alexandrien reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD 412. His years began with August 29, corresponding to the Thot, the Ägyptischer Kalender new year.Annianos of Alexandria however, preferred the Annunciation style as New Year's Day, 25 March, and shifted the Panodorus era by about six months, to begin on 25 March. This created the Alexandrian Era, whose first day was the first day of the proleptic[note 10] Alexandrian civil year in progress, 29 August 5493 BC, with the ecclesiastical year beginning on 25 March 5493 BC.

This system presents in a masterly sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the world's history: the beginning of Creation, the Menschwerdung Gottes, and the Auferstehung Jesu Christi of Jesus Christus. All these events happened, according to the Alexandrian chronology, on 25 March; furthermore, the first two events were separated by the period of exactly 5500 years; the first and the third one occurred on Sunday — the sacred day of the beginning of the Creation and its renovation through Christ

Dionysius von Alexandria had earlier emphatically quoted mystical justifications for the choice of March 25 as the start of the year:

March 25 was considered to be the anniversary of Creation itself. It was the first day of the year in the medieval Julianischer Kalender and the nominal vernal equinox (it had been the actual equinox at the time when the Julian Kalender was originally designed). Considering that Christ was conceived at that date turned March 25 into the Feast of the Verkündigung des Herrn which had to be followed, nine months later, by the celebration of the Weihnachtsgeschichte, Christmas, on December 25.

The Alexandrian Era of March 25, 5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as Maximus Confessor and Theophanes, as well as chroniclers such as Georgios Synkellos. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium, especially in monastic circles. However this masterpiece of Christian symbolism had two serious weak points: historical inaccuracy surrounding the date of Auferstehung Jesu Christi as determined by its Ostern Computus (Osterrechnung),[note 11] and its contradiction to the chronology of the Evangelium (Buch) of Johannes (Apostel) regarding the date of the Crucifixion on Friday after the Passover.

Chronicon Paschale

A new variant of the World Era was suggested in the Chronicon Paschale, a valuable byzantinischer universal chronicle of the world, composed about the year 630 AD by some representative of the Antiochian scholarly tradition. It had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam (Bibel) to the year AD 627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible and begins with 21 March, 5507.

For its influence on Greek Christian chronology, and also because of its wide scope, the "Chronicon Paschale" takes its place beside Eusebius von Caesarea, and the chronicle of the monk Georgios Synkellos which was so important in the Middle Ages; but in respect of form it is inferior to these works.

By the late 10th century, the byzantinischer Era, which had become fixed at September 1 5509 BC since at least the mid-7th century (differing by 16 years from the Alexandrian date, and 2 years from the Chronicon Paschale), had become the widely accepted Kalender of choice par excellence for Chalcedonian Orthodoxy.

Accounts in Church Fathers

St. Johannes Chrysostomos says in his Homily "On the Cross and the Thief", that Jesus Christus:

"opened for us today Paradies, which had remained closed for some 5000 years.".

St. Isaak von Ninive writes in a Homily that before Jesus Christus:

"for five thousand years five hundred and some years Gott left Adam und Eva (i.e. man) to labor on the earth.".

St. Augustinus von Hippo writes in the City of God (written AD 413–426):

"Let us omit the conjectures of men who know not what they say when they speak of the nature and origin of the human race...They are deceived by those highly mendacious documents which profess to give the history of many thousands of years, though reckoning by the sacred writings we find that not 6,000 years have passed. (De civitate Dei 12:10).

Augustine goes on to say that the ancient Greek chronology "does not exceed the true account of the duration of the world as it is given in our documents (i.e. the Liste biblischer Bücher), which are truly sacred."

St. Hippolyt von Rom (c. 170–235) maintained on Scriptural grounds that Jesus's birth took place in 5500 AM, and held that the Weihnachtsgeschichte took place on a passover day, deducing that its month-date was 25 March (see Alexandrian Era). He gave the following intervals:

"...from Adam to the flood 2242 years, thence to Abraham 1141 years, thence to the Exodus 430 years, thence to the passover of Josua, der Sohn Nuns 41 years, thence to the passover of Hiskija 864 years, thence to the passover of Joschija 114 years, thence to the passover of Esra (Person) 107 years, and thence to the birth of Jesus Christus 563 years."

In his Commentary on Daniel, one of his earlier writings, he proceeds to set out additional reasons for accepting the date of 5500 AM:

"First he quotes Exod. xxv. 10f. and pointing out that the length, breadth and height of the Bundeslade amount in all to 5½ cubits, says that these symbolize the 5,500 years from Adam at the end of which Jesus Christus was born. He then quotes from Jn. xix. 14 ' it was about the sixth hour ' and, understanding by that 5½ hours, takes each hour to correspond to a thousand years of the world's life..."

Around AD 202 Hippolytus held that Jesus was born in the 42nd year of the reign of Augustus[note 12] and that he was born in 5500AM. In his Commentary on Daniel he did not need to establish the precise year of Jesus's birth; he is not concerned about the day of the week, the month-date, or even the year; it was sufficient for his purpose to show that Christ was born in the days of Augustus in 5500 AM.

Accounts in byzantinischer authors

From Justinian I.'s decree in AD 537 that all dates must include the Indiktion, the unification of the theological date of creation (as yet unfinalized) with the administrative system of Indiction cycles became commonly referred to amongst byzantinischer authors, to whom the indiction was the standard measurement of time.

In official documents

In the year AD 691, we find the Creation Era in the Acts of the Trullanische Synode:

"... as of the fifteenth day of the month of January last past, in the last fourth Indiktion, in the year six thousand one hundred and ninety"

We find the era also in the dating of the so-called Letter of three Patriarchs to the emperor Theophilos (April, indiction 14, 6344 = 836 AD).

By the 10th century the byzantinischer Era is found in the Novellas of AD 947, 962, 964, and most surely of the year AD 988, all dated in this way, as well as the Act of Patriarch Nicholaos II Chrysobergos in AD 987.

Johannes Skylitzes (c. 1081–1118) major work is the Synopsis of Histories, which covers the reigns of the byzantinischer emperors from the death of Nicephorus I in 811 to the deposition of Michael IV in 1057; it continues the chronicle of Theophanes. Quoting from him as an example of the common byzantinischer dating method, he refers to emperor Basil, writing that:

"In the year 6508 [1000], in the thirteenth Indiktion, the emperor sent a great force against the Bulgarian fortified positions (kastra) on the far side of the Balkan (Haimos) mountains,..."

Niketas Choniates (c. 1155–1215), sometimes called Acominatus, was a byzantinischer Greek historian. His chief work is his History, in twenty-one books, of the period from 1118 to 1207. Again, an example of the dating method can be seen as he refers to the fall of Constantinople to the fourth crusade as follows:

"The Konstantinopel fell to the Latins on the twelfth day of the month of April of the seventh Indiktion in the year 6712 [1204]."

The historian Dukas (Adelsgeschlecht), writing c. AD 1460, makes a detailed account for the Creation Era. Although unrefined in style, the history of Dukas (Adelsgeschlecht) is both judicious and trustworthy, and it is the most valuable source for the closing years of the byzantinischer empire.

"From Adam, the first man created by Gott, to Noach, at whose time the flood took place, there were ten generations. The first, which was from God, was that of Adam (Bibel). The second, after 230 years, was that of Set (Bibel) begotten of Adam. The third, 205 years after Seth, was that of Enosch begotten of Seth. The fourth, 190 years after Enos, was that of Kenan (Bibel) begotten of Enos. The fifth, 170 years after Kainan, was that of Mahalalel begotten of Kainan. The sixth, 165 years after Mahaleel, was that of Jered begotten of Mahaleel. The seventh, 162 years after Jared, was that of Henoch begotten of Jared. The eighth, 165 years after Enoch, was that of Methusalem begotten of Enoch. The ninth, 167 years after Methuselah, was that of Lamech begotten of Methuselah. The tenth, 188 years after Lamech, was that of Noach. Noah was 600 years old when the flood of water came upon the earth. Thus 2242 years may be counted from Adam to the flood.

The descendants of Levi were Mose and Aaron (biblische Person); the latter was the first of the priesthood while Moses was appointed to govern. In the eightieth year of his life, he walked through the Rotes Meer and led his people out of Egypt. This Moses flourished in the time of Inachos (Mythologie) [son of Oceanus and King of Argos] who was the first [Greek] king to reign. Thus the Jews are more ancient than the Greeks.

Remaining in the wilderness forty years they were governed for twenty-five years by Josua, der Sohn Nuns, son of Nun, and by the Judges for 454 years to the reign of Saul, the first king installed by them. During the first year of his reign, the great David was born. Thus from Abraham to David fourteen generations are numbered for a total of 1024 years. From David to the Babylonisches Exil [586 BC] there are fourteen generations totaling 609 years. From the Babylonian Captivity to Jesus Christus there are fourteen generations totaling 504 years.

By the sequence of Numbers we calculate the number of 5,500 years from the time of the first Adam to Jesus Christus.".

byzantinischer mindset

Literal creation days

Even the most mystical Fathers such as Isaak von Ninive accepted without question the common understanding of the Church that the world was created "more or less" in 5,500 BC. As Fr. Seraphim Rose points out:

"The Holy Fathers (probably unanimously) certainly have no doubt that the chronology of the Altes Testament, from Adam onwards, is to be accepted "literally." They did not have the fundamentalist's over-concern for chronological precision, but even the most mystical Fathers (Isaak von Ninive Gregorios Palamas, etc.) were quite certain that Adam lived literally some 900 years, that there were some 5,500 years ("more or less") between Schöpfungsgeschichte (Priesterschrift) and the Menschwerdung Gottes."

The Kirchenvater also consistently affirm that each species of the animate creation came into existence instantaneously, at the command of God, with its seed within itself. Basilius der Große for example takes this literal view in the Hexæmeron, a work consisting of nine homilies delivered by St. Basil on the cosmogony of the opening chapters of Genesis, providing one of the most detailed expositions of the six days of creation to come down to us from the early church. Basil writes in Homily I that:

"Thus then, if it is said, "In the beginning God created," it is to teach us that at the will of God the world arose in less than an instant,..."

Typical of the Christian conviction on this point, St. Hilarius von Poitiers also affirms that the Schöpfungsgeschichte (Priesterschrift) was performed Creatio ex nihilo:

"For all things, as the Prophet says, were made out of nothing; it was no transformation of existing things, but the creation of the non-being into a perfect form".

The prophet cited by St.Hilary was the mother of the Maccabean martyrs, who said to one of her tortured sons, "I beseech you, my child, to look at heaven and earth and see everything in them, and know that God made them out of nothing; so also He made the race of man in this way" (2 Maccabees 7:28). This text from 2. Buch der Makkabäer was the standard biblical proof text for the Christian Church in respect to Creatio ex nihilo. We find the thesis in late Judaism, from which it passed into the Christian faith as an essential teaching.

Hours of the liturgical day

In the byzantinischer period, the day was divided into two 12-hour cycles fixed by the rising and setting of the sun.

"Following Roman custom, the Byzantines began their calendrical day (nychthemeron) at midnight with the Prim (Liturgie) of day (hemera) coming at dawn. The Terz (Liturgie) marked midmorning, the Sext noon, and the Non (Liturgie) midafternoon. Evening (Vesper (Liturgie)) began at the 11th hour, and with sunset came the first hour of night (Komplet). The interval between sunset and sunrise (nyx) was similarly divided into 12 hours as well as the traditional "watches" (vigiliae) of Roman times."

Days of the liturgical week

Marcus Rautman points out that the seven-day week was known throughout the ancient world. The Roman Kalender had assigned one of the planetary deities to each day of the week. The Byzantines naturally avoided using these Latin names with their pagan echoes. They began their week with the "Tag des Herrn" (Sonntag), followed by an orderly succession of numbered days: Deutera ("2nd"), Trite ("3rd"), Tetarte ("4th"), and Pempte ("5th"), a day of "preparation" (Freitag), and finally Samstag.

Each day was devoted to remembering one event of the life of Christ or the Theotokos or several martyrs or saints, whose observed feast days gradually eclipsed traditional festivals. Kyriake was seen as the day of resurrection of Christ and as both the first and eighth day of the week, in the same way that Jesus Christus was the Alpha und Omega of the cosmos, existing both before and after time. The second day of the week recognized Engel, "the secondary luminaries as the first reflections of the primal outpouring of light", just as the sun and the moon had been observed during the Roman week. John the Baptist, the forerunner (Prodromos) of Christ, was honored on the third day. Both the second and third days were viewed as occasions for penitence. The fourth and sixth days were dedicated to the Kreuz (Symbol). The fourth day to the Gottesgebärerin and her mourning of the loss of her son and the sixth day (the Paraskeue) as the day of the Crucifixion of the Lord, with holy songs sung and fasting in remembrance of these events. Nikolaus von Myra was honored on the fifth day of the week, while the Sabatton day was set aside for the saints and all the deceased faithful. This order is still in use in the Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches.

A special arrangement of the way in which the hymns were sung was set for each day of the eight-week cycle, the "Octoechos (liturgy)". This cycle begins on the first Sunday after Easter ("Thomas-Sunday") and contains the texts whose content represents the meaning of the days of the week. The hymns sung on these eight weeks were performed with the use of eight different modes also called Octoechoi.

Comparative list of dates of creation

Early Church writers

• 5537 BC – Sextus Iulius Africanus (AD 200–245), Church historian.
• 5529 BC – Theophilus (Antiochia) (AD 115–181), Bishop of Antioch.
• 5509 BC – byzantinischer Creation Era or "Creation Era of Constantinople." (finalized in the 7th century AD).
• 5507 BC – Chronicon Paschale (c. AD 630), byzantinischer universal chronicle of the world.
• 5500 BC – Hippolyt von Rom. (c. AD 234), Presbyter, writer, martyr.
• 5493 BC – Alexandrian Era (AD 412).
• 5199 BC – Eusebius von Caesarea, Bishop of Caesarea and Church historian (AD 324).

Other ancient estimates

• 5199 BC – Mentioned in the Roman Martyrology,[note 13] published by the authority of Pope Gregory XIII in 1584, later confirmed in 1630 under Pope Urban VIII.
• 4963 BC – According to the Benedictine Chronology[note 14], which is founded on the Septuaginta, the Creation of Adam is given this date (AD 1750).
• 3952 BC – Venerable Beda Venerabilis (c. AD 725), English Benedictine monk.
• 3761 BC[note 15] – Jüdischer Kalender [Judaism] – (c. AD 222–276); or, (c. AD 358 – Hillel II. World Era).
• 3760 BC – Era of Adam, starts with creation of Adam. This era was used previously to the Hillel Era.

Historical perspective

• According to the Orthodox Study Bible:

Regarding questions about the scientific accuracy of the 1. Buch Mose account of creation, and about various viewpoints concerning evolution, the Orthodoxe Kirchen has not dogmatized any particular view. What is dogmatically proclaimed is that the One Triune Gott created everything that exists, and that man was created in a unique way and is alone made in the image and likeness of God (Gn 1:26,27).

The opening words of the Bekenntnis von Nicäa, the central doctrinal statement of Christianity, affirms that the One True God is the source of everything that exists, both physical and spiritual, both animate and inanimate: "We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth, and of all things visible and invisible." In addition, our regeneration in Christ and the resurrection of the dead are both often called the "New Creation" (2 Cor 5:17; Rev 21:1).

• According to Fr. orthodoxwiki:Stanley S. Harakas, the Bible's description of creation is not a "scientific account". It is not read for scientific knowledge but for spiritual truth and divine revelation. The physical-scientific side of the origins of mankind, though important, is really quite secondary in significance to the Church's message. The central image of Adam as Gott's image and likeness, who also represents fallen and sinful humanity, and the new Adam, Jesus Christus, who is the "beginning", the first-born of the dead (Colossians 1:18) and the "Erstlingsfrucht" of those who were dead, and are now alive (1 Corinthians 15:20–23), is what is really important.
• Professor Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert (Sulpizianer), a 19th-century historian, observed that Biblical Chronologies are uncertain due to discrepancies in the figures in 1. Buch Mose and other methodological factors, accounting for hundreds of different chronologies being assigned by historians. In the case of the Fathers of the Drittes Konzil von Konstantinopel, who assigned 5509 BC. as the date of the Schöpfungsgeschichte (Priesterschrift), he writes that it was in response to the emperor's wishes to fix an era or convenient starting point for historical computation. Therefore, it was a decision of mere historical convenience, not respecting either faith or morals, which are what is truly of intrinsic value in the Scriptures. Having made this disclaimer, he settles on the Benedictine Chronology of 4963 BC for the purposes of his history.
• According to the ninth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, regarding the so-called Era of the Creation of the World, Alphonse Des Vignoles [fr] asserted in the preface to his Chronologie de l’Histoire Sainte (Chronology of Sacred History, Berlin 1738), that he collected upwards of two-hundred different calculations, the shortest of which reckons only 3483 years between the creation of the world and the commencement of the vulgar era and the longest 6984. The so-called era of the creation of the world is therefore a purely conventional and arbitrary epoch, for which the very nature of the case discussion is hopeless labour.
• It may also be noted historically that while byzantinischer officials and chroniclers were disconcerted by the ambiguities among the different dating and recording systems in the earlier centuries, these mattered little to most people who marked time by the orderly progression of agricultural Jahreszeit and Kirchenjahr, and by the regularity of holidays, Klima, and years that revealed the Göttliches Recht (Taxis) underlying the world.

Summary

As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time were connected with certain pagan rites and observances, Christians began at an early period to adopt the Hebrew practice of reckoning their years from the supposed period of the Schöpfungsgeschichte (Priesterschrift).[46]

Currently the two dominant dates for creation that exist using the Biblical model, are about 5500 BC and about 4000 BC. These are calculated from the genealogies in two versions of the Bible, with most of the difference arising from two versions of Genesis. The older dates of the Kirchenvater in the byzantinischer Era and in its precursor, the Alexandrian Era, are based on the Greek Septuaginta. The later dates of Archbishop James Ussher and the Jüdischer Kalender are based on the Hebrew Masoretischer Text.

The Kirchenvater were well aware of the discrepancy of some hundreds of years between the Greek and Hebrew Altes Testament chronology,[note 16] and it did not bother them; they did not quibble over years or worry that the standard Kalender was precise "to the very year"; it is sufficient that what is involved is beyond any doubt a matter of some few thousands of years, involving the lifetimes of specific men, and it can in no way be interpreted as millions of years or whole ages and races of men.

To this day, traditional Orthodox Christians will use the byzantinischer calculation of the World Era in conjunction with the Anno Domini (AD) year. Both dates appear on Orthodox cornerstones, ecclesiastical Kalenders and formal documents. The ecclesiastical new year is still observed on September 1 (or on the Gregorian Kalender's September 14 for those churches which follow the Julianischer Kalender). September 2018 marked the beginning of the year 7527 of this era.

Key dates according to the byzantinischer era

• 1 AM (5509 BC) – Schöpfungsgeschichte (Priesterschrift).
• 4755 AM (753 BC) – Gründung Roms.
• 4841 AM ([[667 v. Chr.

]]) – City of Byzantion was founded.

• 5464 AM (44 BC) – Julius Caesar is assassinated
• 5481 AM (27 BC ) – Augustus becomes first Roman Emperor
• c. 5508 AM (1 BC) – Jesus of Nazareth was incarnated and born.
• c. 5541 AM (AD 33) – Jesus Christus's Kreuzigung and Auferstehung.
• 5838 AM (AD 330) – Konstantinopel (Griechische Sprache rendered in Lateinisches Alphabet: Konstantinoupolis) becomes the new capital of the Roman Empire.
• 5888 AM (AD 380) – Christentum became the official religion of the Roman Empire by decree of Theodosius I..
• 5903 AM (AD 395) – Death of Theodosius I. divides the Roman Empire into the Byzantinisches Reich and the Weströmisches Reich.
• 5984 AM (AD 476) – Final collapse of the West Roman Empire
• 6045 AM (AD 537) – Justinian I. decrees that the Indiktion must be included when designating a byzantinischer year.
• 6118 AM (AD 610) – After Griechische Sprache became dominant also in the government at around AD 600, as it had been for many common subjects, the Eastern Roman Empire changed its official language from Latein to Griechische Sprache. More than 100 years after the Fall of Constantinople (AD 1453), a German historian introduced the name "byzantinischer empire" and "Byzantium" for the Greek period of the Eastern Roman Empire; this name finally became dominant among Historiker and Kartografie. One conventional date for the start of the byzantinischer period is this date of 600 AD.
• 6200 AM (AD 692) – Trullanische Synode; first known official use of the byzantinischer Era for dating; Eschatologie significance with this date connected with the Apokalypse des Pseudo-Methodius detailing a prophecy of the last emperor.
• 6388 AM (AD 880) – This year was significant Eschatologie because it was 888 years from the Menschwerdung Gottes (based on 5500 AM as the date of the Incarnation).
• 6496 AM (AD 988) – Official use of the byzantinischer Era by Basileios II.; Christianisierung der Rus, byzantinischer Era adopted in Russia.
• 6500 AM (AD 992) – Eschatological forecasts expected the end to occur in 6500 AM, the half-point of the 7th millennium.
• 6533 AM (AD 1025) – The conventional byzantinischer date for the millennium anniversary of the Auferstehung Jesu Christi, with eschatological connections (based on 5533 AM as the date of the Resurrection).
• 6562 AM (AD 1054) – Morgenländisches Schisma.
• 6579 AM (AD 1071) – Romanos IV. is defeated at the Schlacht bei Manzikert. Most of Anatolia is lost to the Seljuq Turks by 6589 AM (AD 1081). Beginning of the territorial decline of the byzantinischer Empire.
• 6712 AM (AD 1204) – Eroberung von Konstantinopel (1204) by soldiers of the Vierter Kreuzzug; Lateinisches Kaiserreich established.
• 6769 AM (AD 1261) – byzantinischer Empire re-established by Michael VIII. Palaiologos.
• 6961 AM (AD 1453) – Eroberung von Konstantinopel (1453 leading to the final collapse of the byzantinischer Empire. The civilization of Rome in its most inclusive sense, including both Römisches Reich and New Rome (Constantinople), lasted a total of 2,206 years.
• 7000 AM (AD 1492) – Millennialist movements in Moskau due to the 7000th year of the church Kalender. [citation needed]
• 7018 AM (AD 1510) – Russen monk Philotheus of Pskov declares Großfürstentum Moskau to be the Drittes Rom.
• 7338 AM (AD 1830) – Erste Hellenische Republik Griechische Revolution from the Osmanisches Reich according to the Londoner Protokolle zu Griechenland.
• 7427 AM-7430 AM (AD 1919–AD 1922) Griechen politician Eleftherios Venizelos attempts to implement the Megali Idea (recapture of Constantinople from Turkey) in the Griechisch-Türkischer Krieg, but in the course of the war Venizelos loses the election of 1920 and goes into exile and Griechenland is defeated by Türkei.
• 7500 AM (AD 1991-92) – Zerfall der Sowjetunion and Breakup of Yugoslavia.
• 7527 AM /͵ζφκζʹ ε.Κ. (AD 2018-19) – Current year AM, 1. September 2018 through 31 August 2019.

See also

• Annus Mundi
• 1. Buch Mose
• Epoche (Chronologie)
• Creatio ex nihilo
• Hexaemeron
• Julianischer Kalender
• Lunisolarkalender
• Septuaginta
• Junge-Erde-Kreationismus

Principal considerations for the byzantinischer Kalender

• Schöpfungsgeschichte (Priesterschrift)
• Sonnenzyklus (28-year solar cycle)
• Meton-Zyklus (19 year lunar cycle)
• Indiktion (15 year indiction cycle)
• Computus (Osterrechnung)

Other Judeo-Christian eras

• Koptischer Kalender (Note that the "Alexandrian Era" (March 25, 5493 BC), is totally distinct from the Coptic "Alexandrian Kalender", which is derived from the ancient Ägyptischer Kalender and based on another era, the Era of the Martyrs (August 29, 284))
• Enoch Kalender
• Äthiopischer Kalender (Derived from the Coptic "Alexandrian Kalender", and based on the Incarnation Era (August 29, AD 8))
• Jüdischer Kalender
• Ussher-Lightfoot-Kalender

External links

• Main feasts and commemorations. In: Orthodox Church of America. Archiviert vom Original am 9. Oktober 2018; abgerufen am 9. Oktober 2018. 
• byzantinischer ways of reckoning time
• Kalender Era: Late Antiquity and Middle Ages: Christian era at SMSO Encyclopedia (Saudi Medical Site Online).
• Howlett, J. Biblical Chronology. In, The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent). New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.
• Chronology of the Biblical Patriarchs.
• Church Kalender at Orthodoxwiki.

Hebrew Kalender

• The Era of the Creation at Jewish Encyclopedia.
• The Jewish Kalender by Karl Hagen (medievalist).

Bibliography and further reading

Primary sources

• Dukas (Adelsgeschlecht). Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975.
• Georgios Synkellos. The Chronography of George Synkellos: a byzantinischer Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
• Abraham ibn Esra, Abraham ben Meïr, (1092–1167). Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit). (Vol.1 – Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988.
• Sextus Iulius Africanus. Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.
• Niketas Choniates. O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates. Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984.
• Plinius der Ältere. Naturalis historia, XVIII, 210.
• St. Basilius der Große. Hexæmeron. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819–1893): Volume VIII – Basil: Letters and Select Works. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.
• St. Hilarius von Poitiers. On the Trinity. Book IV.
• The Rudder (Pedalion): Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated.

Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published 1800. Trans. D. Cummings, [from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908], Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957. Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983.

• Theophanes. The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: byzantinischer and Near Eastern History, AD 284–813. Cyril Mango, Roger Scott, Geoffrey Greatrex (Eds.). Oxford University Press, 1997.
• Theophilus (Antiochia). Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus. Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) – Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).

Secondary sources

21st century

• Anthony Bryer. "Chronology and Dating". In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, John Haldon, Robin Cormack . The Oxford Handbook of byzantinischer Studies. Oxford University Press, 2008. S. 31–37.
• Dr. Iaakov Karcz. "Implications of some early Jewish sources for estimates of earthquake hazard in the Holy Land". Annals of Geophysics, Vol. 47, N. 2/3, April/June 2004.
• Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis. Conciliar Press, 2008.
• Fr. Seraphim Rose. GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, California, 2000.
• Frederick Deland Leete. Christian Brotherhoods. Kessinger Publishing, 2003.
• Paul James-Griffiths. Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.
• Paul Stephenson. "Translations from byzantinischer Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700–1204: John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion": The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the byzantinischer dating system". November 2006.
• Pavel Kuzenkov. How old is the World? The byzantinischer era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals. 21st International Congress of byzantinischer Studies, London 2006.
• Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). "Russian Kalender (988–1917)". The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September 2008.
• Prof. Dr. Marcus Louis Rautman. "Time." In Daily Life in the byzantinischer Empire. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. S. 3–8.
• Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. "Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium". September 8, 2007.
• Prof. Dr. Roger T. Beckwith (D.D., D.Litt.). Kalender, Chronology, and Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. (Dr Beckwith served for twenty years on the Anglican-Orthodox Commission).
• The Orthodox Study Bible. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008.

20th century

• Barry Setterfield. Ancient Chronology in Scripture. September 1999.
• Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. "Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles". in The Harvard Theological Review, Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), S. 451–481.
• Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. Essays on Jewish Chronology and Chronography. Ktav Pub. House, 1976.
• Dr. Floyd Nolan Jones. Chronology of the Old Testament. Master Books, Arizona, 1993. Repr. 2005. (supports Ussher's chronology, i.e. 4004 BC).
• E.G. Richards. Mapping Time: The Kalender and its History. Oxford University Press, 1998.
• Elias J. Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980.
• Fr. orthodoxwiki:Stanley S. Harakas. The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988.
• George Ogg. "Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era". in Vigiliae Christianae, Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), S. 2–18.
• Howlett, J. "Biblical Chronology". In The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent). New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.
• Jack Finegan. Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible. Hendrickson Publishers, 1998.
• K.A. Worp. Chronological Observations on Later byzantinischer Documents. 1985. University of Amsterdam.
• Prof. Dr. William Adler. Time Immemorial: Archaic History and its Sources in Christian Chronography from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus. Washington, D.C. : Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989.
• Rev. Philip Schaff (1819–1893), Ed. "Era." Realenzyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908–14. Vol. 4, S.163.
• Roger S. Bagnall, K. A. Worp. The Chronological Systems of byzantinischer Egypt. Zutphen, 1978.
• V. Grumel. La Chronologie. Presses Universitaires France, Paris. 1958.
• Van der Essen, L. "Chronicon Paschale". In The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent). New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.
• Yiannis E. Meimaris. Chronological Systems in Roman-byzantinischer Palestine and Arabia. Athens, 1992.

19th century and earlier

• John McClintock, James Strong. Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement. V.2. Harper, 1887.
• Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert (Sulpizianer). An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476. Baltimore: Foley, 1886.
• Samuel Poznański. "Ben Meir and the Origin of the Jewish Kalender". in The Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Oct., 1897), S. 152–161.
• Sir Kalender. Pseudodoxia Epidemica: Book VI. Ch. 1 – Of sundry common opinions Cosmographical and Historical. 1646; 6th ed., 1672. S. 321–330.
• The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy. (Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841.
• Thomas Spencer Baynes. "Chronology: Era of the Creation of the World.” The Encyclopædia Britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature. 9th Ed., Vol. 5. A. & C. Black, 1833. S. 709–754.

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